MSCs-derived apoptotic extracellular vesicles promote muscle regeneration by inducing Pannexin 1 channel-dependent creatine release by myoblasts / 国际口腔科学杂志·英文版

Severe muscle injury is hard to heal and always results in a poor prognosis. Recent studies found that extracellular vesicle-based therapy has promising prospects for regeneration medicine, however, whether extracellular vesicles have therapeutic effects on severe muscle injury is still unknown. Herein, we extracted apoptotic extracellular vesicles derived from mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs-ApoEVs) to treat cardiotoxin induced tibialis anterior (TA) injury and found that MSCs-ApoEVs promoted muscles regeneration and increased the proportion of multinucleated cells. Besides that, we also found that apoptosis was synchronized during myoblasts fusion and MSCs-ApoEVs promoted the apoptosis ratio as well as the fusion index of myoblasts. Furthermore, we revealed that MSCs-ApoEVs increased the relative level of creatine during myoblasts fusion, which was released via activated Pannexin 1 channel. Moreover, we also found that activated Pannexin 1 channel was highly expressed on the membrane of myoblasts-derived ApoEVs (Myo-ApoEVs) instead of apoptotic myoblasts, and creatine was the pivotal metabolite involved in myoblasts fusion. Collectively, our findings firstly revealed that MSCs-ApoEVs can promote muscle regeneration and elucidated that the new function of ApoEVs as passing inter-cell messages through releasing metabolites from activated Pannexin 1 channel, which will provide new evidence for extracellular vesicles-based therapy as well as improving the understanding of new functions of extracellular vesicles.

Effects of nitric oxide on C2C12 cell inflammatory responses and notexin-induced muscle injury / Efectos del óxido nítrico en las respuestas inflamatorias de las células C2C12 y la lesión muscular inducida por notexina

SUMMARY: Skeletal muscle injury is an acute inflammatory condition caused by an inflammatory response. To reduce inflammatory cell infiltration and relieve skeletal muscle injury, efficient treatment is urgently needed. Nitric oxide is a free radical molecule reported to have anti-inflammatory effects. In this study, we showed that NO could inhibit the inflammatory response of C2C12 cells in vitro and protect rat skeletal muscle injury from notexin in vivo. NO synthase inhibitor (L-NG-Nitroarginine Methyl Este?L-NAME) and NO donor (sodium nitroprusside dehydrate ?SNP) were used to explore the vital role of lipopolysaccharides (LPSs) in LPS-stimulated C2C12 myoblasts.The expression of IL-18 and IL-1b was upregulated by L-NAME and downregulated by SNP, as indicated by the ELISA results. NO can reduce ASC, Caspase-1, and NLRP3 mRNA and protein levels. Furthermore, NO was detected in the rat model. The results of immunohistochemical staining showed that the production of DMD decreased. We conducted qRT-PCR and western blotting to detect the expression of Jo-1, Mi-2, TLR2, and TLR4 on day 6 post injury following treatment with L-NAME and SNP. The expression of Jo-1, Mi-2, TLR2, and TLR4 was upregulated by L-NAME and significantly reversed by SNP. NO can alleviate C2C12 cell inflammatory responses and protect rat skeletal muscle injury from notexin.

RESUMEN: La lesión del músculo esquelético es una afección inflamatoria aguda causada por una respuesta inflamatoria. Para reducir la infiltración de células inflamatorias y aliviar la lesión del músculo esquelético es necesario un tratamiento eficaz. El óxido nítrico es una molécula de radicales libres que tiene efectos antiinflamatorios. En este estudio, demostramos que el ON podría inhibir la respuesta inflamatoria de las células C2C12 in vitro y proteger la lesión del músculo esquelético de rata de la notexina in vivo. El inhibidor de ON sintasa (L-NG-nitroarginina metil este, L-NAME) y el donante de ON (nitroprusiato de sodio deshidratado, SNP) se utilizaron para explorar el papel vital de los lipopolisacáridos (LPS) en los mioblastos C2C12 estimulados por LPS. La expresión de IL- 18 e IL-1b fue regulada positivamente por L-NAME y regulada negativamente por SNP, como indican los resultados de ELISA. El ON puede reducir los niveles de proteína y ARNm de ASC, Caspasa-1 y NLRP3. Además, se detectó ON en el modelo de rata. Los resultados de la tinción inmunohistoquímica mostraron que disminuyó la producción de DMD. Realizamos qRT-PCR y transferencia Western para detectar la expresión de Jo-1, Mi-2, TLR2 y TLR4 el día 6 después de la lesión después del tratamiento con L-NAME y SNP. La expresión de Jo-1, Mi-2, TLR2 y TLR4 fue regulada positivamente por L- NAME y significativamente revertida por SNP. El ON puede aliviar las respuestas inflamatorias de las células C2C12 en ratas, y proteger la lesión del músculo esquelético de la notexina.

Alterações miogênicas em células musculares humanas infectadas pelo vírus zika: susceptibilidade de mioblastos e resistência de miotubos / Myogenic alterations in human muscle cells infected by zika virus: myoblast susceptibility and myotube resistance

O músculo esquelético é responsável pelo movimento e manutenção da postura, e é um órgão produtor de miocinas e altamente metabólico, onde alterações em sua fisiologia podem ter consequências sistêmicas. Esse tecido é alvo para diferentes arboviroses, e mialgia é um sintoma frequentemente relatado. O músculo esquelético é composto majoritariamente por fibras musculares, e uma pequena população de células progenitoras denominadas células satélites (SC), que em caso de lesão podem ser ativadas, proliferam e se diferenciam, sendo capazes de regenerar o tecido muscular. Recentemente nosso grupo demonstrou que SC em proliferação (mioblastos) são infectadas pelo vírus ZIKA (ZIKV), enquanto células diferenciadas e fusionadas (miotubos) não apresentam proteínas virais. O presente trabalho avaliou alterações miogênicas e o perfil transcricional de mioblastos e miotubos humanos após tratamento com ZIKV, com o objetivo de identificar fatores e mecanismos envolvidos na susceptibilidade e resistência destas células à infecção. Confirmamos infecção produtiva do ZIKV nos mioblastos, que apresentaram uma redução no número de células expressando a molécula KI67 em altas concentrações (característico de células em mitose). A análise de sequenciamento mostrou perturbação das vias do ciclo celular em mioblastos infectados, que ainda apresentaram enriquecimento de vias relacionadas à morte celular. Também confirmamos a ausência de infecção produtiva nos miotubos. Interessantemente, verificamos que o ZIKV entra nas células diferenciadas, mas não consegue replicar o RNA viral, e a análise do transcriptoma identificou um enriquecimento de vias e modulação de genes antivirais maior ou exclusivamente nas células diferenciadas em comparação aos mioblastos infectados. Além disso, miotubos expostos ao ZIKV aparentam ter aumento de fusão/hipertrofia. Ao contrário dos mioblastos, miotubos apresentaram enriquecimento de vias relacionadas a organização da matriz extracelular. Dados preliminares do nosso grupo mostraram que o cultivo de mioblastos sobre a isoforma de laminina 511 levou à redução da infecção pelo ZIKV. Contudo, em nossos ensaios, a infecção pelo ZIKV não modulou a expressão de receptores para LM e o bloqueio do receptor de LM, a integrina α6, não reduziu a infecção pelo ZIKV em mioblastos. Nosso trabalho mostrou que a infecção pelo ZIKV induz resposta imune e antiviral, que foram enriquecidos em mioblastos e miotubos, sendo que estes apresentaram uma assinatura única de vias e genes antivirais, que poderiam explicar a resistência frente ao ZIKV.

CRISPR/Cas9-mediated MSTN gene editing induced mitochondrial alterations in C2C12 myoblast cells

Background: Myostatin (MSTN) negatively regulates muscle mass and is a potent regulator of energy metabolism. However, MSTN knockout have affect mitochondrial function. This research assessed the mitochondrial energy metabolism of Mstn−/+ KO cells, and wondered whether the mitochondria biogenesis are affected. Results: In this study, we successfully achieved Mstn knockout in skeletal muscle C2C12 cells using a CRISPR/Cas9 system and measured proliferation and differentiation using the Cell-Counting Kit-8 assay and qPCR, respectively. We found that MSTN dysfunction could promote proliferation and differentiation compared with the behaviour of wild-type cells. Moreover, Mstn KO induced an increase in KIF5B expression. The mitochondrial content was significantly increased in Mstn KO C2C12 cells, apparently associated with the increases in PGC-1α, Cox1, Cox2, ND1 and ND2 expression. However, no differences were observed in glucose consumption and lactate production. Interestingly, Mstn KO C2C12 cells showed an increase in IL6 and a decrease in TNF-1α levels. Conclusion: These findings indicate that MSTN regulates mitochondrial biogenesis and metabolism. This gene-editing cells provided favourable evidence for animal breeding and metabolic diseases.

Effects of nutritional status on mitochondrial Ca2+ handling / Efeitos do estado nutricional no manejo de Ca2+ mitocondrial

Mitochondria are central players in cell metabolism, responsible for the vast majority of ATP production in most cells. Although originally thought to be passive organelles focused only in keeping cellular ATP at adequate levels, complex interplay between mitochondrial function and cell signaling has been largely recognized over the last decades. Not surprisingly, given their role, changes in nutritional status promoted by chronic interventions like caloric restriction or short-term situations like fasting in animals or nutrient deprivation in cultured cells are one of the main factors that can activate those signaling mechanisms. One particular way in which this mitochondria-cell crosstalk can occur is through mitochondrial Ca2+ handling, a process in which Ca2+ signals generated by the cell are able to translate into elevations in mitochondrial matrix [Ca2+] due to the presence of the mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter in the organelle. While the impact of mitochondrial Ca2+ handling on cellular function has been widely studied, the conditions which can modulate the process of mitochondrial Ca2+ handling itself are still not well characterized. In this work, we sought to test the effects of different interventions linked to nutritional status on mitochondrial Ca2+ handling. We found that caloric restriction, physiological fasting and modulations of mitochondrial dynamics resulted in modulation of mitochondrial Ca2+ handling through changes in their maximal Ca2+ retention capacity or Ca2+ uptake rates. These changes were, measured by following mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake using different strategies, employing the fluorescent Ca2+ probe Ca2+ Green 5N for experiments in isolated mitochondria and permeabilized cells and the cytosolic probe Fura2-AM in intact cells. Caloric restriction resulted in higher calcium uptake and retention in liver mitochondria, protecting against pathological conditions of Ca2+ overload during ischemia/reperfusion. On the other hand, overnight and short term fasting resulted in lower mitochondrial Ca2+ retention and oxidative phosphorylation capacity in the liver. Modulating mitochondrial morpholoy in C2C12 myoblasts showed that more fragmented mitochondria were less capable of taking up Ca2+, while more fusioned mitochondria showed the opposite phenotype. This modulation in Ca2+ handling through changes in mitochondrial morphology interfered with the process of Store-Operated Ca2+ entry in the cells, showing that these modulations can have impacts in physiological contexts as well. Overall, this work both establishes novel mechanisms of modulation of mitochondrial Ca2+ handling and demonstrates their relevance both in pathology and normal cellular physiology

Mitocôndrias possuem um papel central no metabolismo das células, sendo responsáveis pela maioria da produção de ATP na maioria dos tipos celulares. Embora originalmente se pensasse nas mitocôndrias como organelas estáticas, focadas somente em manter os níveis adequados de ATP na célula, a interação entre a função mitocondrial e a sinalização celular tem sido fortemente reconhecida nas ultimas décadas. Dado este papel, não é surpreendente que mudanças no estado nutricional, tanto crônicas como na restrição calórica quanto em situações como o jejum em animais e a privação de nutrientes em cultura de células foram demonstradas como sendo um dos principais fatores que podem ativar estes mecanismos de sinalização. Uma das formas em que esta interação entre a mitocôndria e a célula ocorre é através do manejo de Ca2+ mitocondrial, um processo em que sinais de Ca2+ gerados pela célula podem resultar em aumentos na [Ca2+] na matriz mitocondrial devido à presença do uniportador de Ca2+ mitocondrial na organelaEmbora o impacto do manejo de Ca2+ mitocondrial na função da célula tenha sido amplamente estudado, a regulação do processo de manejo de Ca2+ mitocondrial em si não é bem conhecida. Neste trabalho, nós nos propusemos a testar os efeitos de diferentes intervenções ligadas ao estado nutricional no manejo de Ca2+ mitocondrial e o possível impacto destas modulações nacapacidade de retenção e na taxa de captação de Ca2+ mitochondrial. As intervenções estudadas foram a restrição calórica, jejum e mudanças na dinâmica mitocondrial, e todas elas resultando em mudanças no manejo de Ca2+ mitocondrial, que foram medidos acompanhando a captação de Ca2+ em mitocôndrias isoladas ou células permeabilizadas utilizando a sonda Ca2+ Green 5N e em células intactas utilizando a sonda de Ca2+ citosólica Fura2-AM. Enquanto a restrição calórica resultou em uma maior capacidade de retenção de Ca2+ e em maiores taxas de captação, protegendo contra as condições patológicas de desregulação de Ca2+ observadas durante a isquemia/reperfusão, o jejum curto ou pela duração da noite resultou em uma diminuição na capacidade de retenção de Ca2+ e na oxidação fosforilativa mitocondriais. As mudanças observadas modulando a dinâmica mitocôndria (feitas utilizando-se mioblastos da linhagem C2C12) revelaram que mitocôndrias mais fragmentadas são menos capazes de captar Ca2+, enquanto mitocôndrias mais fusionadas possuem o fenótipo oposto. Essas mudanças no manejo de Ca2+ mitocondrial interferem com o processo de Store-Operated Ca2+ entry nestas células, demonstrando que essas modulações da captação de Ca2+ mitocondrial também podem ser relevantes em contextos fisiológicos. Em resumo, este trabalho ajudou a estabelecer novos mecanismos de modulação do manejo de Ca2+ mitocondrial que podem ser relevantes tanto em condições patológicas quanto na fisiologia normal das células

The antioxidant system mediated by Nrf2 in C2C12 cells responding to HO stimulus under different oxygen concentration / 中国应用生理学杂志

OBJECTIVE@#To apply hypoxia of different oxygen concentration on C2C12 cells to study the changes of Nrf2 antioxidant system under HO.@*METHODS@#The perfect simulative effect time and concentration of HO were chosen. Cell vitality was tested after C2C12 cells cultured in 0.1 mmol/L, 0.25 mmol/L, 0.5 mmol/L, 0.75 mmol/L, 1 mmol/L and 2 mmol/L HO for 1 or 2 h respectively. The C2C12 cells were divided into different oxygen concentration group: 21%O, 12%O, 8%O, 5%O respectively. And then cells were treated with HO for 1 h, and collected for determination. Immunofluorescence of Nrf2 and the protein expression of Nrf2 were detected. The expressions of antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1), superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2), catalase(CAT), NADPH quinine oxidoreductase-1 (NQO-1), glutathione peroxidase-1 (GPX-1), Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) mRNA and cellular ROS levels were tested by high quality fluorescence assay.@*RESULTS@#0.5 mmol/L HO for 1 h was selected as the conditions of HOstimulation. Compared with 21% O group, the expressions of Nrf2 mRNA and protein, antioxidant enzymes SOD1, SOD2, CAT, HO-1, NQO-1, GPX-1 mRNA were increased significantly (P＜0.05 or P＜0.01), and ROS level was lower (P＜0.01) in 12%O group cells; only the expression of GPX-1 mRNA was increased (P＜0.05) in 8%O group; the expressions of Nrf2 mRNA and protein expression, antioxidant enzymes SOD1, SOD2, NQO-1, GPX-1 mRNA were decreased significantly(P＜0.05 or P＜0.01), and ROS level was higher (P＜0.01) in 5%O group.@*CONCLUSION@#Hypoxia can affect the Nrf2 antioxidant system, and the different oxygen concentrations have different impact. In addition, 12% O for 12 h could promote the Nrf2 antioxidant system, and 5% extremely low oxygen may inhibit it.

Conditioned Medium from Tonsil-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells Relieves CCl₄-Induced Liver Fibrosis in Mice

BACKGROUND: The liver is an organ with remarkable regenerative capacity; however, once chronic fibrosis occurs, liver failure follows, with high mortality and morbidity rates. Continuous exposure to proinflammatory stimuli exaggerates the pathological process of liver failure; therefore, immune modulation is a potential strategy to treat liver fibrosis. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) with tissue regenerative and immunomodulatory potential may support the development of therapeutics for liver fibrosis. METHODS: Here, we induced hepatic injury in mice by injecting carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) and investigated the therapeutic potential of conditionedmedium from tonsil-derivedMSCs (T-MSCCM). In parallel, we used recombinant human IL-1Ra,which, as we have previously shown, is secreted exclusively from T-MSCs and resolves the fibrogenic activation of myoblasts. Hepatic inflammation and fibrosis were determined by histological analyses using H&E and Picro-Sirius Red staining. RESULTS: The results demonstrated that T-MSC CM treatment significantly reduced inflammation as well as fibrosis in the CCl₄-injured mouse liver. IL-1Ra injection showed effects similar to T-MSC CM treatment, suggesting that T-MSC CM may exert anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic effects via the endogenous production of IL-1Ra. The expression of genes involved in fibrosis was evaluated, and the results showed significant induction of alpha-1 type I collagen, transforming growth factor beta, and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteases 1 upon CCl₄ injection, whereas treatment with T-MSC CM or IL-1Ra downregulated their expression. CONCLUSION: Taken together, these data support the therapeutic potential of T-MSC CM and/or IL-1Ra for the alleviation of liver fibrosis, as well as in treating diseases involving organ fibrosis.

Alteration of mitochondrial DNA content modulates antioxidant enzyme expressions and oxidative stress in myoblasts

Mitochondrial dysfunction is closely associated with reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and oxidative stress in cells. On the other hand, modulation of the cellular antioxidant defense system by changes in the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) content is largely unknown. To determine the relationship between the cellular mtDNA content and defense system against oxidative stress, this study examined a set of myoblasts containing a depleted or reverted mtDNA content. A change in the cellular mtDNA content modulated the expression of antioxidant enzymes in myoblasts. In particular, the expression and activity of glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and catalase were inversely correlated with the mtDNA content in myoblasts. The depletion of mtDNA decreased both the reduced glutathione (GSH) and oxidized glutathione (GSSG) slightly, whereas the cellular redox status, as assessed by the GSH/GSSG ratio, was similar to that of the control. Interestingly, the steady-state level of the intracellular ROS, which depends on the reciprocal actions between ROS generation and detoxification, was reduced significantly and the lethality induced by H₂O₂ was alleviated by mtDNA depletion in myoblasts. Therefore, these results suggest that the ROS homeostasis and antioxidant enzymes are modulated by the cellular mtDNA content and that the increased expression and activity of GPx and catalase through the depletion of mtDNA are closely associated with an alleviation of the oxidative stress in myoblasts.

Deficiency of Anoctamin 5/TMEM16E causes nuclear positioning defect and impairs Ca²⁺ signaling of differentiated C2C12 myotubes

Anoctamin 5 (ANO5)/TMEM16E belongs to a member of the ANO/TMEM16 family member of anion channels. However, it is a matter of debate whether ANO5 functions as a genuine plasma membrane chloride channel. It has been recognized that mutations in the ANO5 gene cause many skeletal muscle diseases such as limb girdle muscular dystrophy type 2L (LGMD2L) and Miyoshi muscular dystrophy type 3 (MMD3) in human. However, the molecular mechanisms of the skeletal myopathies caused by ANO5 defects are poorly understood. To understand the role of ANO5 in skeletal muscle development and function, we silenced the ANO5 gene in C2C12 myoblasts and evaluated whether it impairs myogenesis and myotube function. ANO5 knockdown (ANO5-KD) by shRNA resulted in clustered or aggregated nuclei at the body of myotubes without affecting differentiation or myotube formation. Nuclear positioning defect of ANO5-KD myotubes was accompanied with reduced expression of Kif5b protein, a kinesin-related motor protein that controls nuclear transport during myogenesis. ANO5-KD impaired depolarization-induced [Ca²⁺]i transient and reduced sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca²⁺ storage. ANO5-KD resulted in reduced protein expression of the dihydropyridine receptor (DHPR) and SR Ca²⁺-ATPase subtype 1. In addition, ANO5-KD compromised co-localization between DHPR and ryanodine receptor subtype 1. It is concluded that ANO5-KD causes nuclear positioning defect by reduction of Kif5b expression, and compromises Ca²⁺ signaling by downregulating the expression of DHPR and SERCA proteins.

Profiling of remote skeletal muscle gene changes resulting from stimulation of atopic dermatitis disease in NC/Nga mouse model

Although atopic dermatitis (AD) is known to be a representative skin disorder, it also affects the systemic immune response. In a recent study, myoblasts were shown to be involved in the immune regulation, but the roles of muscle cells in AD are poorly understood. We aimed to identify the relationship between mitochondria and atopy by genome-wide analysis of skeletal muscles in mice. We induced AD-like symptoms using house dust mite (HDM) extract in NC/Nga mice. The transcriptional profiles of the untreated group and HDM-induced AD-like group were analyzed and compared using microarray, differentially expressed gene and functional pathway analyses, and protein interaction network construction. Our microarray analysis demonstrated that immune response-, calcium handling-, and mitochondrial metabolism-related genes were differentially expressed. In the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) and Gene Ontology pathway analyses, immune response pathways involved in cytokine interaction, nuclear factor-kappa B, and T-cell receptor signaling, calcium handling pathways, and mitochondria metabolism pathways involved in the citrate cycle were significantly upregulated. In protein interaction network analysis, chemokine family-, muscle contraction process-, and immune response-related genes were identified as hub genes with many interactions. In addition, mitochondrial pathways involved in calcium signaling, cardiac muscle contraction, tricarboxylic acid cycle, oxidation-reduction process, and calcium-mediated signaling were significantly stimulated in KEGG and Gene Ontology analyses. Our results provide a comprehensive understanding of the genome-wide transcriptional changes of HDM-induced AD-like symptoms and the indicated genes that could be used as AD clinical biomarkers.

Sumoylation of histone deacetylase 1 regulates MyoD signaling during myogenesis

Sumoylation, the conjugation of a small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) protein to a target, has diverse cellular effects. However, the functional roles of the SUMO modification during myogenesis have not been fully elucidated. Here, we report that basal sumoylation of histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1) enhances the deacetylation of MyoD in undifferentiated myoblasts, whereas further sumoylation of HDAC1 contributes to switching its binding partners from MyoD to Rb to induce myocyte differentiation. Differentiation in C2C12 skeletal myoblasts induced new immunoblot bands above HDAC1 that were gradually enhanced during differentiation. Using SUMO inhibitors and sumoylation assays, we showed that the upper band was caused by sumoylation of HDAC1 during differentiation. Basal deacetylase activity was not altered in the SUMO modification-resistant mutant HDAC1 K444/476R (HDAC1 2R). Either differentiation or transfection of SUMO1 increased HDAC1 activity that was attenuated in HDAC1 2R. Furthermore, HDAC1 2R failed to deacetylate MyoD. Binding of HDAC1 to MyoD was attenuated by K444/476R. Binding of HDAC1 to MyoD was gradually reduced after 2 days of differentiation. Transfection of SUMO1 induced dissociation of HDAC1 from MyoD but potentiated its binding to Rb. SUMO1 transfection further attenuated HDAC1-induced inhibition of muscle creatine kinase luciferase activity that was reversed in HDAC1 2R. HDAC1 2R failed to inhibit myogenesis and muscle gene expression. In conclusion, HDAC1 sumoylation plays a dual role in MyoD signaling: enhancement of HDAC1 deacetylation of MyoD in the basally sumoylated state of undifferentiated myoblasts and dissociation of HDAC1 from MyoD during myogenesis.

Mitochondrial dysfunction reduces the activity of KIR2.1 K⁺ channel in myoblasts via impaired oxidative phosphorylation

Myoblast fusion depends on mitochondrial integrity and intracellular Ca²⁺ signaling regulated by various ion channels. In this study, we investigated the ionic currents associated with [Ca²⁺]i regulation in normal and mitochondrial DNA-depleted (ρ0) L6 myoblasts. The ρ0 myoblasts showed impaired myotube formation. The inwardly rectifying K⁺ current (I(Kir)) was largely decreased with reduced expression of KIR2.1, whereas the voltage-operated Ca²⁺ channel and Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ channel currents were intact. Sustained inhibition of mitochondrial electron transport by antimycin A treatment (24 h) also decreased the I(Kir). The ρ0 myoblasts showed depolarized resting membrane potential and higher basal [Ca²⁺]ᵢ. Our results demonstrated the specific downregulation of I(Kir) by dysfunctional mitochondria. The resultant depolarization and altered Ca²⁺ signaling might be associated with impaired myoblast fusion in ρ0 myoblasts.

Effects of laser stimulation with different power on oxygen consumption rate of CC myoblasts in mice / 中国应用生理学杂志

OBJECTIVE@#To investigate the effects of 650 nm laser irradiation on cell oxygen consumption rate in CC myoblasts following different doses.@*METHODS@#CC cells were irradiated with 650 nm laser(λ=650 nm, p=5 mW) with energy densities of 0, 0.4, and 0.8 J/cm. Cell oxidative function was measured by oxygen consumption rate kit. Protein expression of myogenic determination factor (MyoD), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α), mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and its phosphorylation were detected by Western blot.@*RESULTS@#Compared to the control group, the expression levels of MyoD, PGC-1α protein were increased and cell oxygen consumption rate was promoted in the low dose group(<0.05). MyoD and PGC-1α protein expressions were also increased(<0.05), the ratio of mTOR and its phosphorylationwere decreased significantly in the high dose group(<0.05).@*CONCLUSIONS@#650 nm laser irradiation that dose is 0.4 J/cm enhances cell oxidative function, it related to that proper dose laser irradiation promoted the expression of PGC-1a protein.

HOXC10 suppresses browning of white adipose tissues

Given that increased thermogenesis in white adipose tissue, also known as browning, promotes energy expenditure, significant efforts have been invested to determine the molecular factors involved in this process. Here we show that HOXC10, a homeobox domain-containing transcription factor expressed in subcutaneous white adipose tissue, is a suppressor of genes involved in browning white adipose tissue. Ectopic expression of HOXC10 in adipocytes suppresses brown fat genes, whereas the depletion of HOXC10 in adipocytes and myoblasts increases the expression of brown fat genes. The protein level of HOXC10 inversely correlates with brown fat genes in subcutaneous white adipose tissue of cold-exposed mice. Expression of HOXC10 in mice suppresses cold-induced browning in subcutaneous white adipose tissue and abolishes the beneficial effect of cold exposure on glucose clearance. HOXC10 exerts its effect, at least in part, by suppressing PRDM16 expression. The results support that HOXC10 is a key negative regulator of the process of browning in white adipose tissue.

Development of Refolding Process to Obtain Active Recombinant Human Bone Morphogenetic Protein-2 and its Osteogenic Efficacy on Oral Stem Cells

BMP-2 is a well-known TGF-beta related growth factor, having a significant role in bone and cartilage formation. It has been employed to promote bone formation in some clinical trials, and to differentiate mesenchymal stem cells into osteoblasts. However, it is difficult to obtain this protein in its soluble and active form. hBMP-2 is expressed as an inclusion body in the bacterial system. To continuously supply hBMP-2 for research, we optimized the refolding of recombinant hBMP-2 expressed in E. coli, and established an efficient method by using detergent and alkali. Using a heparin column, the recombinant hBMP-2 was purified with the correct refolding. Although combinatorial refolding remarkably enhanced the solubility of the inclusion body, a higher yield of active dimer form of hBMP-2 was obtained from one-step refolding with detergent. The refolded recombinant hBMP-2 induced alkaline phosphatase activity in mouse myoblasts, at ED₅₀ of 300-480ng/ml. Furthermore, the expressions of osteogenic markers were upregulated in hPDLSCs and hDPSCs. Therefore, using the process described in this study, the refolded hBMP-2 might be cost-effectively useful for various differentiation experiments in a laboratory.

Role of the Cytokine-like Hormone Leptin in Muscle-bone Crosstalk with Aging

The cytokine-like hormone leptin is a classic adipokine that is secreted by adipocytes, increases with weight gain, and decreases with weight loss. Additional studies have, however, shown that leptin is also produced by skeletal muscle, and leptin receptors are abundant in both skeletal muscle and bone-derived mesenchymal (stromal) stem cells. These findings suggest that leptin may play an important role in muscle-bone crosstalk. Leptin treatment in vitro increases the expression of myogenic genes in primary myoblasts, and leptin treatment in vivo increases the expression of microRNAs involved in myogenesis. Bone marrow adipogenesis is associated with low bone mass in humans and rodents, and leptin can reduce marrow adipogenesis centrally through its receptors in the hypothalamus as well as directly via its receptors in bone marrow stem cells. Yet, central leptin resistance can increase with age, and low circulating levels of leptin have been observed among the frail elderly. Thus, aging appears to significantly alter leptin-mediated crosstalk among various organs and tissues. Aging is associated with bone loss and muscle atrophy, contributing to frailty, postural instability, and the incidence of falls. Therapeutic interventions such as protein and amino acid supplementation that can increase muscle mass and muscle-derived leptin may have multiple benefits for the elderly that can potentially reduce the incidence of falls and fractures.

S100 and p65 expression are increased in the masseter muscle after botulinum toxin-A injection / 대한악안면성형재건외과학회지

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to compare the expression levels of p65 and S100 in the rat masseter muscle after the injection of different concentrations of botulinum toxin-A (BTX-A). METHODS: We injected either 5 or 10 U of BTX-A into both masseter muscle of rats. As a control group, the same volume of saline was injected. After 14 days, the animals were sacrificed. Subsequently, a biopsy and immunohistochemical staining of the samples were performed using a p65 or S100 antibody. RESULTS: The cross-sectional area of each myofibril was significantly reduced by BTX-A injection (P < 0.001). The expression of p65 and S100 increased significantly with increasing concentrations of BTX-A (P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The injection of BTX-A into the masseter muscle induced muscle atrophy. Subsequently, p65 and S100 expression in myoblasts were increased for the protection of muscle cells.

Differential regulation of the histone chaperone HIRA during muscle cell differentiation by a phosphorylation switch

Replication-independent incorporation of variant histone H3.3 has a profound impact on chromatin function and numerous cellular processes, including the differentiation of muscle cells. The histone chaperone HIRA and H3.3 have essential roles in MyoD regulation during myoblast differentiation. However, the precise mechanism that determines the onset of H3.3 deposition in response to differentiation signals is unclear. Here we show that HIRA is phosphorylated by Akt kinase, an important signaling modulator in muscle cells. By generating a phosphospecific antibody, we found that a significant amount of HIRA was phosphorylated in myoblasts. The phosphorylation level of HIRA and the occupancy of phosphorylated protein on muscle genes gradually decreased during cellular differentiation. Remarkably, the forced expression of the phosphomimic form of HIRA resulted in reduced H3.3 deposition and suppressed the activation of muscle genes in myotubes. Our data show that HIRA phosphorylation limits the expression of myogenic genes, while the dephosphorylation of HIRA is required for proficient H3.3 deposition and gene activation, demonstrating that the phosphorylation switch is exploited to modulate HIRA/H3.3-mediated muscle gene regulation during myogenesis.

Exosomes Secreted by Toxoplasma gondii-Infected L6 Cells: Their Effects on Host Cell Proliferation and Cell Cycle Changes

Toxoplasma gondii infection induces alteration of the host cell cycle and cell proliferation. These changes are not only seen in directly invaded host cells but also in neighboring cells. We tried to identify whether this alteration can be mediated by exosomes secreted by T. gondii-infected host cells. L6 cells, a rat myoblast cell line, and RH strain of T. gondii were selected for this study. L6 cells were infected with or without T. gondii to isolate exosomes. The cellular growth patterns were identified by cell counting with trypan blue under confocal microscopy, and cell cycle changes were investigated by flow cytometry. L6 cells infected with T. gondii showed decreased proliferation compared to uninfected L6 cells and revealed a tendency to stay at S or G2/M cell phase. The treatment of exosomes isolated from T. gondii-infected cells showed attenuation of cell proliferation and slight enhancement of S phase in L6 cells. The cell cycle alteration was not as obvious as reduction of the cell proliferation by the exosome treatment. These changes were transient and disappeared at 48 hr after the exosome treatment. Microarray analysis and web-based tools indicated that various exosomal miRNAs were crucial for the regulation of target genes related to cell proliferation. Collectively, our study demonstrated that the exosomes originating from T. gondii could change the host cell proliferation and alter the host cell cycle.

Músculo esquelético y lesión por reperfusión. ultraestructura, alteración y regeneración: revisión sistemática / Skeletal muscle and reperfusion injury: ultrastructure, disease and regeneration: systematic review

Introducción: La función tisular se basa en la asociación celular y la comunicación mediante uniones intercelulares o la matriz extracelular, que compone el tejido conectivo. La isquemia conlleva a cambios de lesión a los cuales las células responden según duración e intensidad del estímulo de lesión. En periodos cortos de isquemia y prolongados de reperfusión, el tejido muscular estriado esquelético presenta cambios en la predominancia de los tipos de fibras musculares y en los componentes de la matriz extracelular intramuscular. Objetivo: Establecer los cambios que se presentan en el músculo esquelético durante la reperfusión prolongada, tanto en las fibras musculares como en su matriz extracelular. Métodos: Se realizó una revisión sistemática mediante la búsqueda de artículos en inglés y español publicados en revistas indexadas en las bases de datos Ovid Medline, PubMed, Wiley y Science Direct. Los descriptores MESH utilizados fueron skeletal muscle, ischemia, reperfusion, fiber type fast twitch, fiber type slow twitch, sarcomere and myoblast. Se acoplaron los términos histology y tissue. Resultados: Se seleccionaron 81 publicaciones y se complementó con imágenes de músculos esqueléticos provenientes de muestras procesadas en el Laboratorio de Histología de la Universidad del Valle, Colombia. Conclusión: La recuperación del músculo durante la reperfusión seguida de isquemia, tiende hacia el patrón histológico y funcional normal. En algunos casos es un proceso lento y que aún después de varios meses no ha finalizado. Así mismo, pueden persistir alteraciones leves o moderadas en la contracción muscular, dados los cambios que se presentan en la matriz extracelular intramuscular.

Introduction: The tissue function is based on the cell association andcommunication through junctions or the extracellular matrix, which comprisesconnective tissue. Ischemia injury leads to changes to which the cells respondand it depends on duration and intensity of stimulus injury. In short periodsof prolonged ischemia and reperfusion, skeletal striated muscle tissue showschanges in the predominance of muscle fiber types and components of theextracellular matrix intramuscular. Objective: To determine the changes whichoccur in skeletal muscle during prolonged reperfusion in both muscle fibersin its extracellular matrix. Methods: A systematic review was performed bysearching for articles in English and Spanish published in journals indexed indatabases Ovid Medline, PubMed, Science Direct and Wiley. MeSH descriptorsused were skeletal muscle, ischemia, reperfusion, fast twitch fiber type, slowtwitch fiber type, sarcomere and myoblast. The terms tissue and histology werecoupled. Results: 81 relevant publications were selected and supplementedwith images of skeletal muscles from samples processed at the Laboratory ofHistology of the Universidad del Valle, Colombia. Conclusion: The recoveryof muscle during ischemia followed by reperfusion, tends toward the normalhistological and functional pattern. In some cases it is a slow process and evenafter several months has not been completed. Likewise, they may persist mildor moderate alterations in muscle contraction, given the changes that occur inthe intramuscular extracellular matrix.